Caption: Construction workers have to deal with extreme heat, the leading cause of climate-related fatalities.
Credit: Mikael Blomkvist, Pexels

Around the world, human-induced climate change is causing extreme weather events such as heatwaves, floods, wildfires, hurricanes, and drought, which are forecast to become more frequent and intense.¹ Climate change is expected to be directly responsible for an additional 250,000 deaths annually between 2030 and 2050, according to the World Health Organization (WHO) projections.² As an illustration of how things have changed, consider that in the 1980s there was only one estimated billion-dollar disaster four times a year; more recently, there has been one estimated billion-dollar disaster every 3 weeks.³

While climate change effects are geographically uneven in their distribution, they are also demographically so, particularly affecting the most marginalized and vulnerable populations.⁴ According to the U.S. Global Change Research Program, key factors that magnify vulnerability include a person’s socioeconomic status, particularly if they have experienced poverty, their occupation (e.g., outdoor workers), location (e.g., living in an urban heat island (where the heat is amplified by surrounding asphalt and concrete), having a pre-existing health condition (e.g., high blood pressure), and limited mobility.⁵

Efforts to mitigate and adapt to the effects of the phenomenon are not progressing at the same pace as the problem. A United Nations report titled “Too Little, Too Slow” argues that the financing required to adjust to the new climate normal is an estimated five to ten times below what it needs to be and that efforts to adapt to climate change frequently fall short of meeting future climate realities and advance too slowly.⁶

One group that is especially impacted by these developments, whom I examine here, are essential workers.⁷ Defined as those who, in accordance with U.S. federal and state regulations, perform vital job functions,⁸ their work often requires them to be in close proximity to extreme weather conditions and hazards caused by or exacerbated by climate change, for which they bear direct health and safety consequences. And yet, these workers are either undercounted or not counted at all within current climate protection initiatives in the United States. I expand on these points below.

Who are essential workers? While there are many definitions, they concur that these are workers employed in many of the most fundamental infrastructure and operational sectors that keep a society and economy moving. They include but are not limited to workers in the social services, health, energy, transportation, and “critical retail” sectors, such as grocery stores.⁹ They also include agricultural workers, electric grid and nuclear power operators, and essential first responders such as firefighters and paramedics.¹⁰ The National Conference of State Legislatures defines essential workers as “the human expertise” that underpins our society’s functional organs.¹¹

The Economic Policy Institute (EPI) estimates that there are 55 million essential workers in the United States. As of May 2024, there was an estimated total workforce of 133 million in the United States,¹² suggesting that essential workers make up almost 40 percent of the total workforce.¹³

Essential workers are more likely to be female and identify as coming from Black, Indigenous, and people of color—or BIPOC—communities.¹⁴ Census statistics show that one in three jobs held by women are related to essential work.¹⁵ And essential workers are largely low paid: Estimates from the Brookings Institute and the Bureau of Labor indicate that an estimated 50 percent of these jobs pay less than $15 per hour.¹⁶ The lowest paid workers include grocery clerks, warehouse workers, fast food workers, home aides, and many others, earning under $15 an hour.¹⁷ Adding to their financial precarity is a volatile and changing labor market, simultaneously influenced by concerns about automation and artificial intelligence, and compounded by the lack of social safety nets.¹⁸</

. . . [E]ssential workers make up almost 40 percent of the total workforce.

Notably, it was the Covid-19 pandemic that finally brought to the fore the critical role of essential workers and the work hazards they faced.¹⁹ While people stayed at home during the lockdown, essential workers went to work, in hospitals, grocery stores, the transportation sector, and elsewhere. And while their efforts were crucial to controlling the worldwide pandemic and were applauded publicly, the crisis highlighted their vulnerability, being the first to be exposed to infections and other workplace dangers.²⁰ Given the pandemic was a global phenomenon that brought modern civilization to a standstill and significantly altered some aspects of societal functioning, some have pointed to it as a case study of what to expect from climate change.²¹ Learning about the treatment of essential workers during Covid offers insight into how essential workers will fare as climate change intensifies.

For essential workers whose jobs require them to be outdoors, climate change is making working conditions far more precarious. A study found that essential workers who work outdoors or in uncontrolled environments with little temperature adaptation, such as construction crews or delivery workers, are at increased risk of heat stress, heat stroke, other injuries, and lost work time.²² In 2023, an estimated 2,302 deaths in the United States were found to be due to extreme heat. This number has been increasing annually, from 1,602 deaths in 2021 to 1,722 deaths in 2022.²³ Official estimates indicate that between 1992 and 2017, 815 worker deaths and 70,000 injuries were attributed to heat stress.²⁴ It is quite likely that future estimates will also show an upward trend. A literature review covering twenty-five studies on outdoor workers found that construction workers faced the negative effects of extreme heat, such as severe dehydration and impaired cognitive function, leading to issues like difficulty in completing tasks or making decisions, and memory loss.²⁵ It is important to note that the physical and psychological costs are borne not only by the workers but also by their families, extended networks, and communities.

. . .[T]he treatment of essential workers during Covid offers insight into how essential workers will fare as climate change intensifies.

Workers in agriculture are frequently exposed to pesticides.²⁶ Pests as well as the chemicals required to manage them are predicted to change due to climate change. In particular, rising temperatures suggest that there will be more pests in more diverse locations and that they will develop new immunities to current pesticides, which in turn will require higher concentrations of synthetic pesticides.²⁷ Workers will be directly impacted by being in close proximity to the chemicals needed to counter a more resilient pest population.²⁸

Increased exposure to warmer temperatures is linked to kidney damage, especially if untreated, and dehydration can worsen blood pressure and kidney problems.²⁹ While medical professionals advise taking a break during extreme climate events like heat waves, it is not always feasible for workers to do so. For example, farm workers are often penalized for taking breaks during extreme weather conditions which is seen as compromising their productivity.³⁰ Farm workers are sometimes unaware of the risks associated with prolonged exposure to the sun, including skin cancer.³¹ In cities, workers may be especially at risk for heat illness or exhaustion,³² in part because they work in urban heat islands.³³

Extreme heat frequently results in the highest number of recorded casualties and fatalities.³⁴ Data on the impact on workers of climate events that are not related to extreme heat are more difficult to find. Data are often classified under a larger category. For example, the U.S. Census of Fatal Occupational Injuries compiled by the U.S. Department of Labor found that deaths from extreme temperatures increased by nearly 20 percent in 2022.³⁵ This category included all types of temperature extremes, not just heat extremes. We also know that extreme flooding can expose workers to infectious diseases, chemical and biological hazards, and the risk of electrocution.³⁶ Climate-enhanced hazards such as hurricanes, wildfires, or floods are causes for long-term injuries. For example, one study found that long-term exposure to wildfire smoke increased the risk of lung cancer and heart disease later in life.³⁷ Researchers looking into wildland firefighter deaths discovered that, from 2013 to 2022, the number of deaths among wildland firefighters had increased, compared to the previous decade, despite a decline in overall firefighter deaths.³⁸ In addition, the researchers discovered that more years on the job increased the likelihood of a fatal incident, indicating that greater work experience was not necessarily a protective factor.

Extreme heat . . . results in the highest number of recorded casualties and fatalities.

The fact that essential workers mostly come from communities marginalized by race, gender, class, income, and citizenship status, and have fewer resources to get back on their feet, makes their working conditions a matter of social justice.³⁹ A 2021 Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) analysis demonstrates that climate change’s impact on “socially vulnerable” populations is particularly acute, in part because their ability to recover from the aftershocks of a climate event is often compromised.⁴⁰ The EPA measured social vulnerability using four metrics: income, education, race and ethnicity, and age. The EPA report found that Hispanic and Latino workers are heavily employed in vulnerable industries that are exposed to extreme temperatures, such as agriculture and construction.⁴¹ These workers are 43 percent more likely to lose work hours due to extreme heat days than non-Hispanic workers. The report identifies a number of factors, including strict work schedules, pay contingent upon an hourly wage, heavy manual labor, and belonging to other socially vulnerable groups, which compounded the vulnerability of essential workers to climate change.⁴²

. . . [E]ssential workers mostly come from communities [that are] marginalized . . . and have fewer resources to get back on their feet . . .

Workers in communities with poorer health outcomes are especially at risk. For example, age or underlying medical conditions like heart disease or asthma, make workers particularly vulnerable to heat-related illnesses and stress.⁴³ The EPA report found that Black individuals relative to non-Black individuals are 34 percent more likely to live in areas with increased asthma diagnoses and are 40 percent more likely to live in areas with the most predicted extreme temperature-related deaths under a warming potential of 3.6° Fahrenheit.

Figure 1 (see page 84) shows a breakdown of workforce sectors expected to be most affected by climate extremes based on selected social vulnerability factors. It shows that in some industries most likely to be affected by climate extremes, the majority of workers come from minority communities and are paid hourly.

U.S. Labor Laws: Leaving Essential Workers Out
What protections do essential workers have under U.S. law in relation to climate change? For now, they are extremely limited, and mostly focused on extreme heat, as heat waves are considered the deadliest extreme weather event.⁴⁵ At the state level, as of 2023, California, Colorado, Minnesota, Oregon, and Washington State have some heat protection orders in place for certain workers.⁴⁶ At the federal level, there exists some vague language in the Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA) of 1970 that requires employers to ensure that the environment in which employees work is “free from recognized hazards that are causing or are likely to cause death or serious physical harm.”⁴⁷ This law, however, was likely not written with climate change in mind.

Many recognize that greater protections for workers need to be institutionalized.⁴⁸ Furthermore, more consolidated federal legislation is needed because local and state regulations are not uniform and often vary widely.⁴⁹ The Biden administration has charged the Department of Labor with developing an extreme heat standard at the federal level to increase funding for better heat forecasts and provide employers with information on how to protect their workers.⁵⁰ It also seeks to hold industries that violate heat guidelines (in development) for workers accountable though it is unclear how some of these initiatives will be enforced and whether the penalty for violations will be effective at deterrence.⁵¹ In addition, the Asunción Valdivia Heat Illness, Injury and Fatality Prevention Act was introduced in July 2023 by Democratic senators led by California’s Alex Padilla. The act is named for a farm worker who passed away while harvesting grapes in temperatures above 100°F, and it seeks to provide heat protection for workers.⁵² Since there is currently no enforceable heat standard, the Asunción Valdivia Heat Act would use OSHA regulations to create an “enforceable standard.”⁵³ These government protection initiatives are still in the planning stages and, should they be passed, will take time to implement.⁵⁴

While the focus on heat waves makes sense, other climate extremes like extreme cold, extreme precipitation, drought, and even deadlier wildfires also affect essential workers. The International Labor Organization estimates there are 860,000 outdoor worker deaths per year worldwide due to air pollution.⁵⁵ Consequently, the legislative efforts in the United States not only underestimate the magnitude of climate change’s effects on the lives of essential workers, but may also be underestimating the number of essential workers affected. For example, the Inflation Reduction Act and the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act of 2021⁵⁶ discuss how to shift the workforce from industries such as the fossil fuel industry, to climate smart jobs (jobs that support climate protection and sustainability). However, the number of workers mentioned is frequently in the few millions,⁵⁷ while some state and federal estimates are closer to 50 million.⁵⁸</
. . . [L]egislative efforts in the U.S. . . . underestimate the magnitude of climate change’s effects . . . [and] the number of essential workers affected.

Similarly, certain just transition arguments for greening the workforce often stop at fossil fuel workers⁵⁹ when we need to expand that classification to a broader class of essential workers, such as mail carriers and postal workers who must travel for long hours exposed to extreme heat. As a result, these estimates severely underestimate and may even leave out essential worker groups. Furthermore, policy artifacts like the Inflation Reduction Act tend to place the burden of “resilience” on individual workers, rather than acknowledging the systemic problem of leaving them unprotected.

The fact that labor laws were written decades ago means they do not recognize essential work as a category or take into account the reality of climate change. If essential workers went on strike due to extreme weather conditions, it is unclear whether their strikes would be protected by law. Legal scholar Marley Weiss explains that there are generally three types of strikes defined by U.S. labor law: (a) protected strikes, or those that are deemed to be protected by the law; (b) prohibited strikes, or those that are against the law; and (c) neither protected nor prohibited, or a strike that is not illegal but does not qualify for legal protection.⁶⁰ Given the lack of statutory protection, it is unclear what category climate worker strikes would fall under. In the absence of written legal protections, vulnerable workers may be reluctant to speak out for fear of retaliation or face what Weiss has called the most “effective [strike] counterweapon”: simply replacing those who are on strike.⁶¹

Calls for Action
Climate disasters are prompting workers to stand up for their own rights, and unions are taking note. An estimated 340,000 United Postal Service (UPS) workers threatened to strike in extreme heat because their delivery vehicles were not air-conditioned.⁶² As a result, thanks in part to a coordinated campaign by nearly 170 local unions, the union reached an agreement that would provide air-conditioning and fans to an estimated 93,000 UPS fleets.⁶³ Similar efforts that focus on leveraging the sheer size of the workforce and union power can be helpful for climate action.⁶⁴ There is the example of the BlueGreen Alliance, a coalition of labor and environmental organizations whose members include the United Steelworkers, the Sierra Club, and the Environmental Defense Fund. While their vision document does not mention essential workers as a specific category, it does advocate for a workforce that has “ironclad commitments to safe and healthy working conditions.”⁶⁵ Advocacy groups are working to amplify the voices of essential workers dealing with climate extremes. The National Council for Occupational Safety and Health (COSH) is a group of twenty-six worker groups around the country committed to strengthening workers’ rights through organizing and advocacy.⁶⁶ COSH advocates for heat justice and advises workers to organize around the issue and convey their demands for safety to employers.

Groups like COSH also serve to humanize and give a name and face to worker fatalities. In a recent press release, COSH detailed the story of Roendy Granillo, a construction worker who died during a heat wave in Texas in 2015, noting that due to the dangerous conditions in which he worked, his father stated, “His organs were cooked from the inside.”⁶⁷ Following Granillo’s death, advocacy groups in Texas worked to pass legislation protecting laborers from heat, but Governor Greg Abbott vetoed the measure.⁶⁸ Efforts continue to pass local ordinances to protect outdoor workers from heat-related stress, but many of these measures are met with heavy resistance.⁶⁹ When heat ordinances or policies do get passed, some of the preventive measures are often of a limited scope. A City of Phoenix Heat Mitigation Ordinance, considered a successful example, allows employees to receive “rest, water, and shade” when working in “extreme heat.”⁷⁰ However, it is unclear what additional long-term protection workers may have beyond these basic ones, such as long-term disability benefits, if they suffer a long-term illness at work.

. . . [U]nionization rates [being linked] to fewer worker fatalities, it is critical to protect workers’ ability to organize when they suffer harm as a result of climate change.

Changes are needed at the federal and state levels to protect workers. These include updating labor laws, particularly strengthening OSHA to take climate change and climate futures into account. Moreover, given the evidence linking higher unionization rates to fewer worker fatalities,⁷¹ it is critical to protect workers’ ability to organize when they suffer harm as a result of climate change. It is encouraging that some states have made an effort to safeguard their essential workers, even if these efforts are frequently concentrated on extreme heat. Protection should be extended to workers from other current and future climate extremes.

Data are critical. At the federal, state, and local levels, data on essential workers, exposure to climate hazards, and social vulnerability factors must be centrally tracked to inform evidence-based policymaking.

Awareness, on the part of both employers and workers, of what climate change can do to workers’ bodies is essential. Take heat illness, for example: it is not widely known that the first day of work is often the riskiest for employees. The first day of work accounts for 50 percent of heat-related worker deaths, and the first week accounts for 70 percent of them, according to OSHA data.⁷² In light of this, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recommends that outdoor workers cut back on their workload until they are able to withstand high temperatures. These guidelines, also known as acclimatization policies, aim to progressively raise workers’ tolerance.⁷³ In particular, they specify that on the first day, an outdoor worker should only work half of a regular day, and that a full shift should only be undertaken on the fifth day. Acclimatization policies should be continually updated for current and future climate projections, implemented for other climate extremes besides heat, and properly enforced. Funding for these initiatives can come from existing legislation like the bipartisan infrastructure bill or the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act that is in part aimed at strengthening the United States’ resilience to climate change.⁷⁴ Protecting our essential workers is an indisputable and moral need, especially given that these deaths are “100 percent preventable.”⁷⁵